Zhu Yuangzhang and the Secret Society

The popular form of resistance of the Confucian Chinese Empire was traditionally the secret society. It had its own counter-hierarchy, it was usually based on Buddhist or Taoist, i.e anti-bureaucratic, principles, it stood in principle for equality between the sexes, and it did not differentiate between rich and poor. The function was a mixture of insurance fund and insurgency organization. Many Chinese revolutions from the 20th century onwards have been organized – at least in the beginning – by secret societies, even in the 20th century. Yes, if you want, you can see the Chinese Communist Party as such in the beginning.

In the first half of the 14th century, China was ruled by the Mongol Empire. Its main interest was to maintain trade between China and Europe and to protect the privileges of the Mongols at the expense of the Han Chinese. It was therefore poorly tolerated.
Gradually the plunder and poverty increased and the secret societies called for revolt. In particular, one called the Red Turban (pictured) and which was a spin-off of the White Lotus’ company. It began in the 1340s to carve out an area of influence in Zhejiang, ie the coast inside Taiwan where the Beijing government had difficulty accessing. Inspired by this, several other, independent White Lotus groups revolted in their home areas.

Gradually, the different groupings merged into larger ones. The most effective of the commanders, the peasant son Zhu Yuangzhang, prevailed because he proved unsurpassed in creating alliances between the peasants and the educated middle class, and finally defeated in 1368 the last Mongol emperor and proclaimed himself as such.

The new regime, the Ming, pursued a pro-peasant policy, carried out a land reform, withdrew China from world trade, planted trees, and maintained a jealous centralist policy that eventually created corruption and encouraged new peasant uprisings led by secret societies.

Reading
Jean Chesneaux: Secret societies in China, The University of Michigan Press 1971
John W Dardess: The transformations of messianic revolt and the founding of the Ming dynasty, in The Journal of Asian Studies vol 29 no 3, 1970.8.